5% of participants reporting having children. Researchers found parenthood is either neutral or has a very small impact on hedonic wellbeing and life satisfaction. Participants with children reported lower relationship satisfaction than those without, and having more children than desired is linked to reduced wellbeing.
A separate survey of over 23,000 adults found that parents with more offspring than they wanted reported the lowest life satisfaction levels, with exceeding fertility desires robustly linked to lower wellbeing in both women and men. Research methodology involved questionnaires assessing hedonic wellbeing (day-to-day feelings) and eudaimonic wellbeing (having a purpose in life), with women with children reporting a slightly greater sense of purpose, though the difference was small. According to researchers, stronger sociocultural expectations placed on women are offset by the heavier burdens of motherhood, and women without children have more time for career pursuits and social networks.
Previous research connected motherhood with lower self-esteem and relationship satisfaction due to physical and emotional labor, with a 2025 study indicating mothers handle over 70% of household tasks compared to fathers' 43%. Explanations for the findings include that children provide brief positive emotions, such as joy during milestones, but these do not sustain happiness, and parenthood exerts opposing influences: positive from genetic interests fostering cooperation and negative from financial costs and stressors. 4 children, and the phenomenon is likely due to hidden costs of parenthood.
Unknowns remain regarding specific financial stressors, cultural differences across countries, and how child age influences parental happiness.