The researchers analysed 123 experiments involving almost 20,000 men, distinguishing between triggers, internal emotional responses, and compensatory reactions such as overtly stereotypical masculine behaviour. Across all the studies, they found a common theme: when men doubt their masculinity, it alters their emotions, behaviour, and attitudes. Men feel their masculinity is threatened when they are told they are less assertive, dominant, or 'masculine' than others, or when they are subordinate to a woman who takes the lead or perform tasks considered 'unmanly'.
The effects are surprisingly strong when men conclude that they do not conform to the masculine ideal – stronger than when they receive external feedback, according to co-author Sven Kachel. He added that especially when others are present, the pressure to present oneself as masculine increases. Experiences of threat can lead to short-term emotional distress, including anxiety, stress, discomfort, or anger.
Externally, these emotions lead to risk-taking, aggression, disparaging other groups, and stronger endorsement of traditional, male-dominated social structures, such as advocating for traditional gender roles, sexually harassing women, and denying rights to sexual minorities. While these behaviours might make men feel better in the short-term, in the long-term, they can harm the men themselves, including in response to a female boss or orders from another man considered less manly. Co-author Lea Lorenz stated that threats to masculinity can burden men and have negative effects on their environment, promoting aggressive, risky, or discriminatory behavior and shifting voting behavior toward hardline, conservative parties.
She noted that the study results have social relevance. The specific methodologies used in the 123 experiments analysed and the demographic breakdowns of the men in the study remain unclear.